Creatine, a supplement that has gained ample attention in recent years, is popular amongst gym-goers. With a market that is estimated to grow rapidly in the coming years (CAGR 17.8%, 2024-2030), creatine remains one of the most highly studied and research-backed supplements on the market (Grand View Research).

WHAT IS IT?

Creatine, a bioactive molecule composed of the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine, is critical for rapid energy or adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, especially during high-intensity, short-term movements such as sprinting or weightlifting. Approximately 95% of creatine is stored intracellularly in the muscle, rapidly replenishing energy during muscle contractions (Kreider at al., 2021). Within a typical [omnivorous] diet, individuals consume about 1 g of creatine per day (Balsom et al., 1994), and approximately the same amount is synthesized daily within the body. However, this increase in creatine is approximately equal to daily creatine excretion, as a typical 70 kg individual will lose 2 g creatine per day in the form of creatinine in their urine (Bemben et al., 2010).

However, the balance between creatine input and output, and the subsequent ability to maintain creatine stores (120-140 g for 70 kg individual), is based on many factors. For example, relative to the average individual, individuals who are more active degrade more creatine, and individuals who consume less or no animal-based products (e.g., vegetarians and vegans, respectively) have lower creatine stores (Hultman et al., 1996). Therefore, maintaining or increasing creatine stores within the body is easiest to achieve via supplementation.

WHAT DOES RESEARCH SAY?

In general, creatine supplementation has been proven to be (1) safe with limited adverse health effects, (2) beneficial for muscle growth and performance, and (3) potentially beneficial for cognitive support, age-related degeneration, immune support, and other health and therapeutic-related applications.

Although creatine supplementation can lead to temporary, dose-dependent water retention (Hall & Trojian, 2013), there are limited adverse effects associated with proper creatine supplementation (3-5 g/day; Antonio et al., 2021). Some sources recommend a loading period, designed to rapidly replenish intracellular creatine stores, although this process can amplify adverse health effects. Although occasionally reported, the majority of research discredits common misconceptions associated with creatine supplementation such as kidney problems (Naeini et al., 2025) and hair loss (Vatani et al., 2011).

For muscle growth and performance, studies have shown strength athletes can gain lean body mass with creatine supplementation (Desai et al., 2025; Felipe et al., 2022; Salem et al., 2026). Similar results have been found in other studies, reflecting improvements in both upper- and lower-body strength with creatine supplementation (Wang et al., 2024). These impacts can be especially positive in the mitigation of sarcopenia and other age-related muscle and cognitive degeneration (Gualano et al., 2016).

The benefits of creatine supplementation extend beyond musculature-related effects with some studies reporting improvement in neurological diseases (Ferrante et al., 2000; Matthews at al., 1999), psychiatric disorders (Han et al., 2025), brain injuries (Sullivan et al., 2000), and many other conditions. Kreider & Stout (2021) and Riesberg et al. (2016) have more thorough reviews on this topic.

LIMITATIONS

Currently, creatine can be difficult to use in many food applications due to solubility limitations and aqueous instability. Specifically, creatine has low solubility in water, preventing even the standard dose (5 g) from fully solubilizing within a cup of liquid (200-300 mL). This incomplete dissolution might interfere with proper absorption. Furthermore, when solubilized, creatine destabilizes, shifting from bioactive creatine to a cyclic, inactive form: creatinine. In fact, after 43 days of storage (at room temperature, 23°C), a formulated creatine beverage (pH = 4) has been found to lose 50% of its activity (Uzzan et al., 2009). This destabilization is even more severe when products undergo common food processing steps such as thermal treatment. With this, although the standard creatine powders retain functionality if consumed quickly after mixing with water or other foods (e.g., yogurt), formulating higher moisture, pre-packaged foods and beverages with creatine becomes a challenge. To overcome these limitations, research has investigated structural modifications and processing techniques to amplify creatine solubility, stability, and absorption.

FORMS OF CREATINE

The most common form of creatine is creatine monohydrate, and the majority of clinical trials have been conducted using this form. Individuals who take creatine likely put a scoop of this product into a beverage or other food product. Creatine anhydrous yields a slightly higher purity per weight, yet it is more expensive. As mentioned above, both of these products suffer from limited solubility and stability in high moisture systems, which is why it is important to consume these products quickly if they are added to a beverage or other food product. As summarized by Albagachiev et al. (2026), in an attempt to overcome these challenges, other developed creatine forms include:

• Chemically modified creatine – targeted structural modifications to improve properties including creatine salts, creatine ethyl esters, phosphocreatine disodium, phenyl creatine, and others
• Micronized creatine – very common process of reducing particle size and increasing particle surface area to improve dissolution rate and solubility using mills, homogenizers, spray dryers, supercritical fluids, or other processing steps
• Granulated creatine – agglomerating particles to improve powder wettability, flowability, porosity, and uniformity
• Amorphized creatine – disorganizing or controlling crystallization to tailor properties
• Creatine within solid dispersions – combining creatine with a group of solid particles, typically a polymer matrix, to control release of creatine
• Encapsulated creatine – coating active creatine with particles, both natural and synthetic, to protect creatine from process-associated destabilization and modify absorption

Overall, the goal of these forms is to improve creatine physical properties (e.g., solubility), reduce creatinine formation in high-moisture systems, and enable preferential creatine absorption, yet these forms are often optimized for a specific application. For example, creatine might be encapsulated within lipid nanoclusters, allowing for enhanced penetration through biological barriers such as the blood-brain barrier. However, this creatine form is quite insoluble within aqueous dispersions due to its hydrophobic (water-hating) nature, so the product’s solubility suffers. Ingredient companies continue to innovate in this space, looking to optimize this clinically supported supplement for applications in convenient, pre-packaged foods.

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